Comprehensive Subcellular Localization of Swine Acute Diarrhea Syndrome Coronavirus Proteins.

Bats are reservoirs for diverse coronaviruses, including swine acute diarrhea syndrome coronavirus (SADS-CoV). SADS-CoV was first identified in diarrheal piglets in 2017. As a novel alphacoronavirus, SADS-CoV shares ~95% identity with bat alphacoronavirus HKU2. SADS-CoV has been reported to have broad cell tropism and inherent potential to cross host species barriers for dissemination. Thus far, no effective antiviral drugs or vaccines are available to treat infections with SADS-CoV. Therefore, knowledge of the protein-coding gene set and a subcellular localization map of SADS-CoV proteins are fundamental first steps in this endeavor. Here, all SADS-CoV genes were cloned separately into Flag-tagged plasmids, and the subcellular localizations of viral proteins, with the exception of nsp11, were detected using confocal microscopy techniques. As a result, nsp1, nsp3-N, nsp4, nsp5, nsp7, nsp8, nsp9, nsp10, nsp14, and nsp15 were localized in the cytoplasm and nuclear spaces, and these viral proteins may perform specific functions in the nucleus. All structural and accessory proteins were mainly localized in the cytoplasm. NS7a and membrane protein M colocalized with the Golgi compartment, and they may regulate the assembly of SADS-CoV virions. Maturation of SADS-CoV may occur in the late endosomes, during which envelope protein E is involved in the assembly and release of the virus. In summary, the present study demonstrates for the first time the location of all the viral proteins of SADS-CoV. These fundamental studies of SADS-CoV will promote studies of basic virology of SADS-CoV and support preventive strategies for animals with infection of SADS-CoV. IMPORTANCE SADS-CoV is the first documented spillover of a bat coronavirus that causes severe diseases in domestic animals. Our study is an in-depth annotation of the newly discovered swine coronavirus SADS-CoV genome and viral protein expression. Systematic subcellular localization of SADS-CoV proteins can have dramatic significance in revealing viral protein biological functions in the subcellular locations. Furthermore, our study promote understanding the fundamental science behind the novel swine coronavirus to pave the way for treatments and cures.

Gain-of-function genetic screening identifies the antiviral function of TMEM120A via STING activation.

Zika virus (ZIKV) infection can be associated with neurological pathologies, such as microcephaly in newborns and Guillain-Barre syndrome in adults. Effective therapeutics are currently not available. As such, a comprehensive understanding of virus-host interactions may guide the development of medications for ZIKV. Here we report a human genome-wide overexpression screen to identify host factors that regulate ZIKV infection and find TMEM120A as a ZIKV restriction factor. TMEM120A overexpression significantly inhibits ZIKV replication, while TMEM120A knockdown increases ZIKV infection in cell lines. Moreover, Tmem120a knockout in mice facilitates ZIKV infection in primary mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEF) cells. Mechanistically, the antiviral activity of TMEM120A is dependent on STING, as TMEM120A interacts with STING, promotes the translocation of STING from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) to ER-Golgi intermediate compartment (ERGIC) and enhances the phosphorylation of downstream TBK1 and IRF3, resulting in the expression of multiple antiviral cytokines and interferon-stimulated genes. In summary, our gain-of-function screening identifies TMEM120A as a key activator of the antiviral signaling of STING.

Flavivirus infections induce a Golgi stress response in vertebrate and mosquito cells.

The stress of the Golgi apparatus is an autoregulatory mechanism that is induced to compensate for greater demand in the Golgi functions. No examples of Golgi stress responses due to physiological stimuli are known. Furthermore, the impact on this organelle of viral infections that occupy the vesicular transport during replication is unknown. In this work, we evaluated if a Golgi stress response is triggered during dengue and Zika viruses replication, two flaviviruses whose replicative cycle is heavily involved with the Golgi complex, in vertebrate and mosquito cells. Using GM-130 as a Golgi marker, and treatment with monensin as a positive control for the induction of the Golgi stress response, a significant expansion of the Golgi cisternae was observed in BHK-21, Vero E6 and mosquito cells infected with either virus. Activation of the TFE3 pathway was observed in the infected cells as indicated by the translocation from the cytoplasm to the nucleus of TFE3 and increased expression of pathway targeted genes. Of note, no sign of activation of the stress response was observed in CRFK cells infected with Feline Calicivirus (FCV), a virus released by cell lysis, not requiring vesicular transport. Finally, dilatation of the Golgi complex and translocation of TFE3 was observed in vertebrate cells expressing dengue and Zika viruses NS1, but not NS3. These results indicated that infections by dengue and Zika viruses induce a Golgi stress response in vertebrate and mosquito cells due to the increased demand on the Golgi complex imposed by virion and NS1 processing and secretion.

How Viruses Hijack and Modify the Secretory Transport Pathway.

Eukaryotic cells contain dynamic membrane-bound organelles that are constantly remodeled in response to physiological and environmental cues. Key organelles are the endoplasmic reticulum, the Golgi apparatus and the plasma membrane, which are interconnected by vesicular traffic through the secretory transport route. Numerous viruses, especially enveloped viruses, use and modify compartments of the secretory pathway to promote their replication, assembly and cell egression by hijacking the host cell machinery. In some cases, the subversion mechanism has been uncovered. In this review, we summarize our current understanding of how the secretory pathway is subverted and exploited by viruses belonging to Picornaviridae, Coronaviridae, Flaviviridae,Poxviridae, Parvoviridae and Herpesviridae families.

Rottlerin inhibits La Crosse virus-induced encephalitis in mice and blocks release of replicating virus from the Golgi body in neurons.

La Crosse virus (LACV) is a mosquito-borne orthobunyavirus that causes approximately 60 to 80 hospitalized pediatric encephalitis cases in the United States yearly. The primary treatment for most viral encephalitis, including LACV, is palliative care, and specific antiviral therapeutics are needed. We screened the National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences library of 3,833 FDA-approved and bioactive small molecules for the ability to inhibit LACV-induced death in SH-SY5Y neuronal cells. The top three hits from the initial screen were validated by examining their ability to inhibit virus-induced cell death in multiple neuronal cell lines. Rottlerin consistently reduced LACV-induced death by 50% in multiple human and mouse neuronal cell lines with an effective concentration of 0.16-0.69 µg ml-1 depending on cell line. Rottlerin was effective up to 12 hours post-infection in vitro and inhibited virus particle trafficking from the Golgi apparatus to trans-Golgi vesicles. In human inducible pluripotent stem cell-derived cerebral organoids, rottlerin reduced virus production by one log and cell death by 35% compared with dimethyl sulfoxide-treated controls. Administration of rottlerin in mice by intraperitoneal or intracranial routes starting at 3 days post-infection decreased disease development by 30-50%. Furthermore, rottlerin also inhibited virus replication of other pathogenic California serogroup orthobunyaviruses (Jamestown Canyon and Tahyna virus) in neuronal cell lines.

S-acylation controls SARS-CoV-2 membrane lipid organization and enhances infectivity.

SARS-CoV-2 virions are surrounded by a lipid bilayer that contains membrane proteins such as spike, responsible for target-cell binding and virus fusion. We found that during SARS-CoV-2 infection, spike becomes lipid modified, through the sequential action of the S-acyltransferases ZDHHC20 and 9. Particularly striking is the rapid acylation of spike on 10 cytosolic cysteines within the ER and Golgi. Using a combination of computational, lipidomics, and biochemical approaches, we show that this massive lipidation controls spike biogenesis and degradation, and drives the formation of localized ordered cholesterol and sphingolipid-rich lipid nanodomains in the early Golgi, where viral budding occurs. Finally, S-acylation of spike allows the formation of viruses with enhanced fusion capacity. Our study points toward S-acylating enzymes and lipid biosynthesis enzymes as novel therapeutic anti-viral targets.

Disruption of the Golgi Apparatus and Contribution of the Endoplasmic Reticulum to the SARS-CoV-2 Replication Complex.

A variety of immunolabeling procedures for both light and electron microscopy were used to examine the cellular origins of the host membranes supporting the SARS-CoV-2 replication complex. The endoplasmic reticulum has long been implicated as a source of membrane for the coronavirus replication organelle. Using dsRNA as a marker for sites of viral RNA synthesis, we provide additional evidence supporting ER as a prominent source of membrane. In addition, we observed a rapid fragmentation of the Golgi apparatus which is visible by 6 h and complete by 12 h post-infection. Golgi derived lipid appears to be incorporated into the replication organelle although protein markers are dispersed throughout the infected cell. The mechanism of Golgi disruption is undefined, but chemical disruption of the Golgi apparatus by brefeldin A is inhibitory to viral replication. A search for an individual SARS-CoV-2 protein responsible for this activity identified at least five viral proteins, M, S, E, Orf6, and nsp3, that induced Golgi fragmentation when expressed in eukaryotic cells. Each of these proteins, as well as nsp4, also caused visible changes to ER structure as shown by correlative light and electron microscopy (CLEM). Collectively, these results imply that specific disruption of the Golgi apparatus is a critical component of coronavirus replication.

Human Cytomegalovirus Exploits TACC3 To Control Microtubule Dynamics and Late Stages of Infection.

While it is well established that microtubules (MTs) facilitate various stages of virus replication, how viruses actively control MT dynamics and functions remains less well understood. Recent work has begun to reveal how several viruses exploit End-Binding (EB) proteins and their associated microtubule plus-end tracking proteins (+TIPs), in particular to enable loading of viral particles onto MTs for retrograde transport during early stages of infection. Distinct from other viruses studied to date, at mid- to late stages of its unusually protracted replication cycle, human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) increases the expression of all three EB family members. This occurs coincident with the formation of a unique structure, termed the assembly compartment (AC), which serves as a Golgi-derived MT organizing center. Together, the AC and distinct EB proteins enable HCMV to increase the formation of dynamic and acetylated microtubule subsets to regulate distinct aspects of the viral replication cycle. Here, we reveal that HCMV also exploits EB-independent +TIP pathways by specifically increasing the expression of transforming acidic coiled coil protein 3 (TACC3) to recruit the MT polymerase, chTOG, from initial sites of MT nucleation in the AC out into the cytosol, thereby increasing dynamic MT growth. Preventing TACC3 increases or depleting chTOG impaired MT polymerization, resulting in defects in early versus late endosome organization in and around the AC as well as defects in viral trafficking and spread. Our findings provide the first example of a virus that actively exploits EB-independent +TIP pathways to regulate MT dynamics and control late stages of virus replication. IMPORTANCE Diverse viruses rely on host cell microtubule networks to transport viral particles within the dense cytoplasmic environment and to control the broader architecture of the cell to facilitate their replication. However, precisely how viruses regulate the dynamic behavior and function of microtubule filaments remains poorly defined. We recently showed that the assembly compartment (AC) formed by human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) acts as a Golgi-derived microtubule organizing center. Here, we show that at mid- to late stages of infection, HCMV increases the expression of transforming acidic coiled coil protein 3 (TACC3) to control the localization of the microtubule polymerase, chTOG. This, in turn, enables HCMV to generate dynamic microtubule subsets that organize endocytic vesicles in and around the AC and facilitate the transport of new viral particles released into the cytosol. Our findings reveal the first instance of viral targeting of TACC3 to control microtubule dynamics and virus spread.

Morphological and Taxonomic Properties of the Newly Isolated Cotonvirus japonicus, a New Lineage of the Subfamily Megavirinae.

Since 2003, various viruses from the subfamily Megavirinae in the family Mimiviridae have been isolated worldwide, including icosahedral mimiviruses and tailed tupanviruses. To date, the evolutionary relationship between tailed and nontailed mimiviruses has not been elucidated. Here, we present the genomic and morphological features of a newly isolated giant virus, Cotonvirus japonicus (cotonvirus), belonging to the family Mimiviridae. It contains a linear double-stranded DNA molecule of 1.47 Mb, the largest among the reported viruses in the subfamily Megavirinae, excluding tupanviruses. Among its 1,306 predicted open reading frames, 1,149 (88.0%) were homologous to those of the family Mimiviridae. Several nucleocytoplasmic large DNA virus (NCLDV) core genes, aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase genes, and the host specificity of cotonvirus were highly similar to those of Mimiviridae lineages A, B, and C; however, lineage A was slightly closer to cotonvirus than the others were. Moreover, based on its genome size, the presence of two copies of 18S rRNA-like sequences, and the period of its infection cycle, cotonvirus is the most similar to the tupanviruses among the icosahedral mimiviruses. Interestingly, the cotonvirus utilizes Golgi apparatus-like vesicles for virion factory (VF) formation. Overall, we showed that cotonvirus is a novel lineage of the subfamily Megavirinae. Our findings support the diversity of icosahedral mimiviruses and provide mechanistic insights into the replication, VF formation, and evolution of the subfamily Megavirinae. IMPORTANCE We have isolated a new virus of an independent lineage belonging to the family Mimiviridae, subfamily Megavirinae, from the fresh water of a canal in Japan, named Cotonvirus. In a proteomic tree, this new nucleocytoplasmic large DNA virus (NCLDV) is phylogenetically placed at the root of three lineages of the subfamily Megavirinae-lineages A (mimivirus), B (moumouvirus), and C (megavirus). Multiple genomic and phenotypic features of cotonvirus are more similar to those of tupanviruses than to those of the A, B, or C lineages, and other genomic features, while the host specificity of cotonvirus is more similar to those of the latter than of the former. These results suggest that cotonvirus is a unique virus that has chimeric features of existing viruses of Megavirinae and uses Golgi apparatus-like vesicles of the host cells for virion factory (VF) formation. Thus, cotonvirus can provide novel insights into the evolution of mimiviruses and the underlying mechanisms of VF formation.

TAP dysfunction in dendritic cells enables noncanonical cross-presentation for T cell priming.

Classic major histocompatibility complex class I (MHC-I) presentation relies on shuttling cytosolic peptides into the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) by the transporter associated with antigen processing (TAP). Viruses disable TAP to block MHC-I presentation and evade cytotoxic CD8+ T cells. Priming CD8+ T cells against these viruses is thought to rely solely on cross-presentation by uninfected TAP-functional dendritic cells. We found that protective CD8+ T cells could be mobilized during viral infection even when TAP was absent in all hematopoietic cells. TAP blockade depleted the endosomal recycling compartment of MHC-I molecules and, as such, impaired Toll-like receptor-regulated cross-presentation. Instead, MHC-I molecules accumulated in the ER-Golgi intermediate compartment (ERGIC), sequestered away from Toll-like receptor control, and coopted ER-SNARE Sec22b-mediated vesicular traffic to intersect with internalized antigen and rescue cross-presentation. Thus, when classic MHC-I presentation and endosomal recycling compartment-dependent cross-presentation are impaired in dendritic cells, cell-autonomous noncanonical cross-presentation relying on ERGIC-derived MHC-I counters TAP dysfunction to nevertheless mediate CD8+ T cell priming.

Functional landscape of SARS-CoV-2 cellular restriction.

A deficient interferon (IFN) response to severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection has been implicated as a determinant of severe coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). To identify the molecular effectors that govern IFN control of SARS-CoV-2 infection, we conducted a large-scale gain-of-function analysis that evaluated the impact of human IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs) on viral replication. A limited subset of ISGs were found to control viral infection, including endosomal factors inhibiting viral entry, RNA binding proteins suppressing viral RNA synthesis, and a highly enriched cluster of endoplasmic reticulum (ER)/Golgi-resident ISGs inhibiting viral assembly/egress. These included broad-acting antiviral ISGs and eight ISGs that specifically inhibited SARS-CoV-2 and SARS-CoV-1 replication. Among the broad-acting ISGs was BST2/tetherin, which impeded viral release and is antagonized by SARS-CoV-2 Orf7a protein. Overall, these data illuminate a set of ISGs that underlie innate immune control of SARS-CoV-2/SARS-CoV-1 infection, which will facilitate the understanding of host determinants that impact disease severity and offer potential therapeutic strategies for COVID-19.

Assembly and Cellular Exit of Coronaviruses: Hijacking an Unconventional Secretory Pathway from the Pre-Golgi Intermediate Compartment via the Golgi Ribbon to the Extracellular Space.

Coronaviruses (CoVs) assemble by budding into the lumen of the intermediate compartment (IC) at the endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-Golgi interface. However, why CoVs have chosen the IC as their intracellular site of assembly and how progeny viruses are delivered from this compartment to the extracellular space has remained unclear. Here we address these enigmatic late events of the CoV life cycle in light of recently described properties of the IC. Of particular interest are the emerging spatial and functional connections between IC elements and recycling endosomes (REs), defined by the GTPases Rab1 and Rab11, respectively. The establishment of IC-RE links at the cell periphery, around the centrosome and evidently also at the noncompact zones of the Golgi ribbon indicates that-besides traditional ER-Golgi communication-the IC also promotes a secretory process that bypasses the Golgi stacks, but involves its direct connection with the endocytic recycling system. The initial confinement of CoVs to the lumen of IC-derived large transport carriers and their preferential absence from Golgi stacks is consistent with the idea that they exit cells following such an unconventional route. In fact, CoVs may share this pathway with other intracellularly budding viruses, lipoproteins, procollagen, and/or protein aggregates experimentally introduced into the IC lumen.

Human N-Alpha-Acetyltransferase 60 Promotes Influenza A Virus Infection by Dampening the Interferon Alpha Signaling.

N-alpha-acetyltransferase 60 (NAA60) is the most recently discovered N-terminal acetyltransferase and found only in multicellular eukaryotes. NAA60 localizes to the Golgi complex and is one of the only two N-terminal acetyltransferases known to localize to an organelle. Furthermore, NAA60 possesses a unique ability of catalyzing the acetylation of membrane-anchored proteins at the N-terminus and histones at the lysine side chains. Herein, we demonstrate that NAA60 exhibits proviral properties during influenza A virus (IAV) infection by interfering with the interferon (IFN) α signaling. We found that the depletion and overexpression of NAA60 reduced and enhanced, respectively, the IAV growth in a cell type- and IAV strain-independent manner. Mechanistically, the IAV-induced expression of IFNα was increased and decreased in NAA60-depleted and -overexpressing cells, respectively. Furthermore, the depletion of NAA60 enhanced the level of phosphorylated STAT1 transcription factor as well as the expression of several IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs) such as MX1, CH25H, IFITM3, ISG15 and viperin in infected cells. Whereas the overexpression of NAA60 produced opposite results. Finally, similar results were obtained when the NAA60-depleted cells were treated with purified IFNα. These findings, in conjunction with our recent findings where N-terminal acetylation of many host proteins increased in response to the IAV infection, indicate an important role of N-terminal acetylation during IAV replication.

The Inflammasome Components NLRP3 and ASC Act in Concert with IRGM To Rearrange the Golgi Apparatus during Hepatitis C Virus Infection.

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection triggers Golgi fragmentation through the Golgi-resident protein immunity-related GTPase M (IRGM). Here, we report the roles of NLRP3 (NOD-, LRR- and pyrin domain-containing protein 3) and ASC (apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing a caspase activation and recruitment domain [CARD]), two inflammasome components, in the initial events leading to this fragmentation. We show that ASC resides at the Golgi with IRGM at homeostasis. Upon infection, ASC dissociates from both IRGM and the Golgi and associates with HCV-induced NLRP3. NLRP3 silencing inhibits Golgi fragmentation. ASC silencing disrupts the Golgi structure in both control and infected cells and reduces the localization of IRGM at the Golgi. IRGM depletion in the ASC-silenced cells cannot totally restore the Golgi structure. These data highlight a role for ASC, upstream of the formation of the inflammasome, in regulating IRGM through its control on the Golgi. A similar mechanism occurs in response to nigericin treatment, but not in cells infected with another member of the Flaviviridae family, Zika virus (ZIKV). We propose a model for a newly ascribed function of the inflammasome components in Golgi structural remodeling during certain stimuli.IMPORTANCE Numerous pathogens can affect cellular homeostasis and organelle dynamics. Hepatitis C virus (HCV) triggers Golgi fragmentation through the immunity-related GTPase M (IRGM), a resident Golgi protein, to enhance its lipid supply for replication. Here, we reveal the role of the inflammasome components NLRP3 and ASC in this process, thus uncovering a new interplay between effectors of inflammation and viral infection or stress. We show that the inflammasome component ASC resides at the Golgi under homeostasis and associates with IRGM. Upon HCV infection, ASC is recruited to NLRP3 and dissociates from IRGM, causing Golgi fragmentation. Our results uncover that aside from their known function in the inflammation response, these host defense regulators also ensure the maintenance of intact intracellular structure in homeostasis, while their activation relieves factors leading to Golgi remodeling.

A fluorescent reporter system enables spatiotemporal analysis of host cell modification during herpes simplex virus-1 replication.

Herpesviruses are large and complex viruses that have a long history of coevolution with their host species. One important factor in the virus-host interaction is the alteration of intracellular morphology during viral replication with critical implications for viral assembly. However, the details of this remodeling event are not well understood, in part because insufficient tools are available to deconstruct this highly heterogeneous process. To provide an accurate and reliable method of investigating the spatiotemporal dynamics of virus-induced changes to cellular architecture, we constructed a dual-fluorescent reporter virus that enabled us to classify four distinct stages in the infection cycle of herpes simplex virus-1 at the single cell level. This timestamping method can accurately track the infection cycle across a wide range of multiplicities of infection. We used high-resolution fluorescence microscopy analysis of cellular structures in live and fixed cells in concert with our reporter virus to generate a detailed and chronological overview of the spatial and temporal reorganization during viral replication. The highly orchestrated and striking relocation of many organelles around the compartments of secondary envelopment during transition from early to late gene expression suggests that the reshaping of these compartments is essential for virus assembly. We furthermore find that accumulation of HSV-1 capsids in the cytoplasm is accompanied by fragmentation of the Golgi apparatus with potential impact on the late steps of viral assembly. We anticipate that in the future similar tools can be systematically applied for the systems-level analysis of intracellular morphology during replication of other viruses.

The SARS-CoV-2 envelope and membrane proteins modulate maturation and retention of the spike protein, allowing assembly of virus-like particles.

The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), a ß-coronavirus, is the causative agent of the COVID-19 pandemic. Like for other coronaviruses, its particles are composed of four structural proteins: spike (S), envelope (E), membrane (M), and nucleoprotein (N) proteins. The involvement of each of these proteins and their interactions are critical for assembly and production of ß-coronavirus particles. Here, we sought to characterize the interplay of SARS-CoV-2 structural proteins during the viral assembly process. By combining biochemical and imaging assays in infected versus transfected cells, we show that E and M regulate intracellular trafficking of S as well as its intracellular processing. Indeed, the imaging data reveal that S is relocalized at endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-Golgi intermediate compartment (ERGIC) or Golgi compartments upon coexpression of E or M, as observed in SARS-CoV-2-infected cells, which prevents syncytia formation. We show that a C-terminal retrieval motif in the cytoplasmic tail of S is required for its M-mediated retention in the ERGIC, whereas E induces S retention by modulating the cell secretory pathway. We also highlight that E and M induce a specific maturation of N-glycosylation of S, independently of the regulation of its localization, with a profile that is observed both in infected cells and in purified viral particles. Finally, we show that E, M, and N are required for optimal production of virus-like-particles. Altogether, these results highlight how E and M proteins may influence the properties of S proteins and promote the assembly of SARS-CoV-2 viral particles.

Imaging-Based Reporter Systems to Define CVB-Induced Membrane Remodeling in Living Cells.

Enteroviruses manipulate host membranes to form replication organelles, which concentrate viral and host factors to allow for efficient replication. However, this process has not been well-studied in living cells throughout the course of infection. To define the dynamic process of enterovirus membrane remodeling of major secretory pathway organelles, we have developed plasmid-based reporter systems that utilize viral protease-dependent release of a nuclear-localized fluorescent protein from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membrane during infection, while retaining organelle-specific fluorescent protein markers such as the ER and Golgi. This system thus allows for the monitoring of organelle-specific changes induced by infection in real-time. Using long-term time-lapse imaging of living cells infected with coxsackievirus B3 (CVB), we detected reporter translocation to the nucleus beginning ~4 h post-infection, which correlated with a loss of Golgi integrity and a collapse of the peripheral ER. Lastly, we applied our system to study the effects of a calcium channel inhibitor, 2APB, on virus-induced manipulation of host membranes. We found that 2APB treatment had no effect on the kinetics of infection or the percentage of infected cells. However, we observed aberrant ER structures in CVB-infected cells treated with 2APB and a significant decrease in viral-dependent cell lysis, which corresponded with a decrease in extracellular virus titers. Thus, our system provides a tractable platform to monitor the effects of inhibitors, gene silencing, and/or gene editing on viral manipulation of host membranes, which can help determine the mechanism of action for antivirals.

The Golgi Calcium ATPase Pump Plays an Essential Role in Adeno-associated Virus Trafficking and Transduction.

Adeno-associated viruses (AAVs) are dependoparvoviruses that have proven useful for therapeutic gene transfer; however, our understanding of host factors that influence AAV trafficking and transduction is still evolving. Here, we investigated the role of cellular calcium in the AAV infectious pathway. First, we demonstrated a critical role for the host Golgi compartment-resident ATP-powered calcium pump (secretory pathway calcium ATPase 1 [SPCA1]) encoded by the ATP2C1 gene in AAV infection. CRISPR-based knockout (KO) of ATP2C1 decreases transduction by different AAV serotypes. ATP2C1 KO does not appear to inhibit AAV binding, cellular uptake, or nuclear entry; however, capsids within ATP2C1 KO cells demonstrate dispersed and punctate trafficking distinct from the perinuclear, trans-Golgi pattern observed in normal cells. In addition, we observed a defect in the ability of AAV capsids to undergo conformational changes and support efficient vector genome transcription in ATP2C1 KO cells. The calcium chelator BAPTA-AM, which reduces cytosolic calcium, rescues the defective ATP2C1 KO phenotype and AAV transduction in vitro Conversely, the calcium ionophore ionomycin, which disrupts calcium gradients, blocks AAV transduction. Further, we demonstrated that modulating calcium in the murine brain using BAPTA-AM augments AAV gene expression in vivo Taking these data together, we postulate that the maintenance of an intracellular calcium gradient by the calcium ATPase and processing within the Golgi compartment are essential for priming the capsid to support efficient AAV genome transcription.IMPORTANCE Adeno-associated viruses (AAVs) have proven to be effective gene transfer vectors. However, our understanding of how the host cell environment influences AAV transduction is still evolving. In the present study, we investigated the role of ATP2C1, which encodes a membrane calcium transport pump, SPCA1, essential for maintaining cellular calcium homeostasis on AAV transduction. Our results indicate that cellular calcium is essential for efficient intracellular trafficking and conformational changes in the AAV capsid that support efficient genome transcription. Further, we show that pharmacological modulation of cellular calcium levels can potentially be applied to improve the AAV gene transfer efficiency.

GBP5 Is an Interferon-Induced Inhibitor of Respiratory Syncytial Virus.

Guanylate binding protein 5 (GBP5) belongs to the GTPase subfamily, which is mainly induced by interferon gamma (IFN-γ) and is involved in many important cellular processes, including inflammasome activation and innate immunity against a wide variety of microbial pathogens. However, it is unknown whether GBP5 inhibits respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infection. In this study, we identified GBP5 as an effector of the anti-RSV activity of IFN-γ and found that in children, the weaker immune response, especially the weaker IFN-γ response and the decreased GBP5 expression, leads to RSV susceptibility. Furthermore, we revealed that GBP5 reduced the cell-associated levels of the RSV small hydrophobic (SH) protein, which was identified as a viroporin. In contrast, overexpression of the SH protein rescued RSV replication in the presence of GBP5. The GBP5-induced decrease in intracellular SH protein levels is because GBP5 promotes the release of the SH protein into the cell culture. Moreover, the GBP5 C583A mutants with changes at the C terminus or the GBP5 ΔC mutant lacking the C-terminal region, which impairs GBP5 localization in the Golgi, could not inhibit RSV infection, whereas the GTPase-defective GBP5 maintained RSV inhibition, suggesting that Golgi localization but not the GTPase activity of GBP5 is required for RSV inhibition. Interestingly, we found that RSV infection or RSV G protein downregulates GBP5 expression by upregulating DZIP3, an E3 ligase, which induces GBP5 degradation through the K48 ubiquitination and proteasomal pathways. Thus, this study reveals a complicated interplay between host restrictive factor GBP5 and RSV infection and provides important information for understanding the pathogenesis of RSV.IMPORTANCE RSV is a highly contagious virus that causes multiple infections in infants within their first year of life. It can also easily cause infection in elderly or immunocompromised individuals, suggesting that individual differences in immunity play an important role in RSV infection. Therefore, exploring the pathogenic mechanisms of RSV and identifying essential genes which inhibit RSV infection are necessary to develop an effective strategy to control RSV infection. Here, we report that the IFN-inducible gene GBP5 potently inhibits RSV replication by reducing the cell-associated levels of the RSV small hydrophobic (SH) protein, which is a viroporin. In contrast, the RSV G protein was shown to upregulate the expression of the DZIP3 protein, an E3 ligase that degrades GBP5 through the proteasomal pathway. Our study provides important information for the understanding of the pathogenic mechanisms of RSV and host immunity as well as the complicated interplay between the virus and host.

Live Visualization of Hemagglutinin Dynamics During Infection by Using a Novel Reporter Influenza A Virus.

Live visualization of influenza A virus (IAV) structural proteins during viral infection in cells is highly sought objective to study different aspects of the viral replication cycle. To achieve this, we engineered an IAV to express a Tetra Cysteine tag (TC tag) from hemagglutinin (HA), which allows intracellular labeling of the engineered HA protein with biarsenic dyes and subsequent fluorescence detection. Using such constructs, we rescued a recombinant IAV with TC tag inserted in HA, in A/Puerto Rico/8/1934(H1N1) background (HA-TC). This recombinant HA-TC tag reporter IAV was replication-competent; however, as compared to wild type PR8 IAV, it was attenuated in multicycle replication. We confirmed expression of TC tag and biarsenical labeling of HA by immunofluorescence assay in cells infected with an HA-TC tag reporter IAV. Further, we used this reporter virus to visualize HA expression and translocation in IAV infected cells by live confocal imaging. We also tested the utility of the HA-TC IAV in testing chemical inhibitors of the HA translocation. Overall, HA-TC IAV is a versatile tool that will be useful for studying viral life cycle events, virus-host interactions, and anti-viral testing.